Anger, Hostility, and Rage

Writ by Oregonleatherboy aka Jesse Lee

https://smokepimp.space

Anger, hostility, and rage are all related to intense emotional states that can lead to aggressive behavior. While these terms are often used interchangeably, they have distinct differences.

Anger is a normal and healthy emotion that arises in response to a perceived threat or injustice. It can be expressed in a variety of ways, from mild irritation to intense fury. 

Hostility, on the other hand, is a persistent attitude or disposition of anger that is directed towards others. It involves a negative evaluation of others and can lead to verbal or physical aggression. 

Rage is an extreme form of anger that is often associated with loss of control and violent behavior.

Research has shown that there is a correlation between anger, hostility, and rage. Individuals who score high on measures of anger and hostility are more likely to experience rage and engage in aggressive behavior. This relationship is particularly strong when individuals perceive that they have been unfairly treated or disrespected.

There are several factors that can contribute to the development of anger, hostility, and rage. 

These include:

• genetic predisposition

•  childhood experiences

• environmental stressors 

• mental health conditions

 such as:

• depression 

•  anxiety.

Effective management of anger, hostility, and rage involves identifying triggers and developing coping strategies to manage these emotions in a healthy way. This may involve techniques such as:

• deep breathing exercises

•  mindfulness meditation

• cognitive-behavioral therapy

•  medication.

Top 3 Authoritative Reference Publications or URLs:

1. American Psychological Association: https://www.apa.org/topics/anger

2. Mayo Clinic: https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/adult-health/in-depth/anger-management/art-20045434

3. National Institute of Mental Health: https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/anger/index.shtml

Anger and narcissism are two distinct psychological constructs that have been studied extensively in the field of psychology. Narcissism refers to a personality trait characterized by grandiosity, entitlement, and a lack of empathy. Anger, on the other hand, is an emotion that arises in response to perceived threats or injustices. While these two constructs may seem unrelated, research has shown that there is a correlation between anger and narcissism.

Studies have found that individuals with high levels of narcissism are more likely to experience anger in response to perceived threats to their self-esteem or status. This can manifest in various ways, such as becoming defensive or lashing out at others. Additionally, individuals with narcissistic traits may be more likely to hold grudges and seek revenge when they feel wronged.

One possible explanation for this correlation is that individuals with high levels of narcissism have an inflated sense of self-importance and a need for admiration from others. When their self-esteem is threatened, they may become angry as a way to protect their ego and maintain their sense of superiority. Additionally, individuals with narcissistic traits may be more prone to feelings of entitlement and may become angry when they do not receive the special treatment or attention they believe they deserve.

It is important to note that not all individuals with narcissistic traits will experience anger in the same way or to the same degree. Other factors, such as individual differences in emotional regulation and coping strategies, can also play a role in how individuals with narcissistic traits respond to perceived threats.

Top 3 Authoritative Reference Publications/URLs:

1. Campbell, W. K., & Miller, J. D. (2011). The Handbook of Narcissism and Narcissistic Personality Disorder: Theoretical Approaches, Empirical Findings, and Treatments. John Wiley & Sons.

2. Bushman, B. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (1998). Threatened egotism, narcissism, self-esteem, and direct and displaced aggression: Does self-love or self-hate lead to violence?. Journal of personality and social psychology, 75(1), 219.

3. Rhodewalt, F., & Morf, C. C. (1995). Self and interpersonal correlates of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory: A review and new findings. Journal of Research in Personality, 29(1), 1-23.

Anger is a normal human emotion that can be triggered by various situations such as frustration, disappointment, or perceived injustice. However, for individuals with psychopathic tendencies, anger can be a tool for manipulation and control. Psychopathy is a personality disorder characterized by a lack of empathy, impulsivity, and a tendency towards antisocial behavior. Research has shown that psychopaths are more likely to experience anger and aggression than non-psychopathic individuals.

Studies have found that psychopaths have a reduced ability to regulate their emotions, including anger. This means that they may experience intense anger in response to minor provocations or even no provocation at all. Additionally, psychopaths may use anger as a way to intimidate others and get what they want. They may also use anger to mask their true emotions and manipulate those around them.

Furthermore, research has shown that the relationship between anger and psychopathy is bidirectional. This means that not only are psychopaths more likely to experience anger, but experiencing frequent and intense anger may also increase the likelihood of developing psychopathic traits. Anger can fuel impulsivity and aggressive behavior, which are key features of psychopathy.

It is important to note that not all individuals who experience anger or aggression are psychopaths. Anger is a normal human emotion, and it is only when it is used as a tool for manipulation and control that it becomes problematic.

Top 3 Authoritative Reference Publications/URLs:

1. "Psychopathy and Aggression: When Paranoia Meets Malice" by Andrea L. Glenn and Adrian Raine (2014)

2. "The Relationship Between Anger and Psychopathy: A Review of the Literature" by Amanda M. Vicary and Joseph P. Newman (2015)

3. "Anger in Psychopathy: A Review" by Jennifer E. Vitale and Craig S. Neumann (2018)

Anger is a complex human emotion that has evolved as a response to various environmental and social stimuli. It is an innate and universal emotion that has been observed across cultures, ages, and genders. Anger can be defined as an emotional state characterized by feelings of hostility, frustration, and aggression towards a perceived threat or injustice. It can manifest itself in different ways such as:

•  verbal outbursts

• physical violence

•  or passive-aggressive behavior. 

Anger has both positive and negative effects on individuals and society as a whole.

One of the main reasons why anger is a human emotion is its evolutionary significance. Anger has been a crucial survival mechanism for humans since prehistoric times. It helped our ancestors to defend themselves against predators, protect their resources, and establish dominance within social hierarchies. The fight or flight response triggered by anger allowed early humans to react quickly to danger and increase their chances of survival. In modern times, anger still serves a protective function by motivating individuals to take action against perceived threats or injustices.

Another reason why anger is a human emotion is its role in social interactions. Anger can be used as a tool for communication and negotiation in interpersonal relationships. It can signal dissatisfaction with another person's behavior or actions and motivate them to change. However, excessive or uncontrolled anger can damage relationships and lead to conflict and violence.

Finally, anger is a human emotion because it is influenced by individual differences such as personality traits, cultural background, and life experiences. Some people are more prone to anger than others due to genetic factors or environmental influences such as:

•  childhood trauma 

•  chronic stress

. Cultural norms also play a role in shaping how individuals express and perceive anger.

In conclusion, anger is a complex human emotion that has evolved as a response to various environmental and social stimuli. Its evolutionary significance, role in social interactions, and individual differences make it a fundamental aspect of human behavior.

Top 3 Authoritative Reference Publications or URLs:

1. American Psychological Association: https://www.apa.org/topics/anger/

2. Harvard Health Publishing: https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/controlling-anger-before-it-controls-you

3. Psychology Today: https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/anger

One of the main reasons for hostility in humans is the survival instinct. Throughout history, humans have had to compete for resources such as:

•  food

•  water

• and shelter.

 Hostility towards other groups or individuals who were seen as a threat to these resources was a way to ensure survival. This behavior was passed down through generations, leading to the development of aggressive tendencies in humans.

Another factor that contributes to hostility in humans is social hierarchy. In many societies, individuals who are perceived as more dominant or powerful are often given more respect and privileges. This can lead to competition and aggression between individuals or groups vying for power and status.

Additionally, genetics may play a role in aggression and hostility. Some studies suggest that certain genes may be associated with aggressive behavior in humans. However, it is important to note that genetics alone cannot fully explain why some individuals are more hostile than others.

Overall, it can be argued that hostility has played a role in human evolution as a means of survival and competition for resources and social status.

Top 3 Authoritative Reference Publications:

1. "The Evolutionary Origins of Human Aggression: A Review of the Evidence" by David Sloan Wilson and E.O. Wilson

2. "The Biological Roots of Human Aggression" by Richard J. Davidson

3. "The Role of Hostility in Human Evolution" by Michael E. McCullough

Rage is a part of human evolution because it has played a crucial role in the survival and success of our species. Rage is a powerful emotion that is triggered by a perceived threat or injustice. When we experience rage, our body releases adrenaline and other stress hormones that prepare us for fight or flight response.

In the context of human evolution, rage has helped our ancestors to survive in dangerous and hostile environments. When faced with predators or other threats, rage would have helped them to fight back and defend themselves. Rage would also have been useful in situations where resources were scarce, and competition for survival was intense.

Moreover, rage has played an important role in social interactions among humans. In early societies, conflicts over resources or territory were common, and rage would have helped individuals to assert their dominance and protect their interests. Rage has also been used as a tool for social change, as it can motivate individuals to take action against injustice or oppression.

However, while rage may have been adaptive in the past, it can also be destructive in modern society. Uncontrolled rage can lead to violence and aggression, which can harm both individuals and society as a whole. Therefore, it is important to learn how to manage and regulate our emotions effectively.

In conclusion, rage is a part of human evolution because it has helped our species to survive and thrive in challenging environments. However, in modern society, it is important to recognize the potential dangers of uncontrolled rage and learn how to manage our emotions effectively.

Top 3 Authoritative Reference Publications/URLs:

1. "The Evolutionary Significance of Anger" by Aaron Sell et al., published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

2. "The Role of Anger in Human Cooperation" by Ryan McKay et al., published in Evolutionary Psychology

3. "The Adaptive Value of Anger in Fighting" by Mark van Vugt et al., published in Human Nature.

Anger		Hostility	Rage
Field theory The backbone of social psychology  variable of individual behavior on the situational context  lewin 1943	Field theory Interpersonal negotiation can undermine the link between intention and behavior  Divisser and Smith 2004	Diffusion of responsibility can undermine one's ability to act on deeply held beliefs	Physical abuse and neglect create externalizing and internalizing problems
Self-conscious emotions Morally relevant negatively valenced shame guilt  embarrassment	Self-conscious Emotions  Morally relevant  positive balanced elevation  gratitude  sometimes morally  relevant Pride	Self-conscious emotions Evaluation of self Self reflection Self evaluation Implicit meaning consciously perceived or explicit meaning subconscious or under the conscious radar
Attempts to distinguish between shame and guilt fall under three categories  based on eliciting events Distinction between public or private transgression Degree on which the transgression is concerns emotion eliciting event has a failure or self behavior	Whether it is shame or guilt which is felt depends little to nothing on the circumstance or type of event	Anger⤵️ 🪓 Hostility⤵️ 🔪 Rage🤬
	Moral emotions  link the interest or welfare either of society as a whole or at least a person's other than that bad of the judge or agent 6 - 113  mora emotions and behavior	Moral emotions  The motivational Force providing the power and energy to make the distinction and choice to do good and avoid being bad  Kroll and Egan 2004	Morality self-conscious emotions Internal punishment or reward of behavior immediately Salient embarrassment guilt pride    shame
Dynamic which effect the results Poor explanatory model   differences in response to maltreatment   severity   family Dynamics number four	Anger is an adaptive emotion
	Rage differs from adaptive anger in feelings of righteousness or feeling justified  whereas rage feelings are of powerlessness and thrive to lash out at others rage is on focused and not goal-oriented as an adaptive anger may have an explosive quality this  Rage links shame and humiliation	Associated with shame is equal to hostility Maladaptive antisocial emotion hostility  form of unfocused anger character as  rage (HP Lewis 1971 1993 Morrison 1989 and retzinger 1987)
Children and adults shame problem exhibit more angry and aggression
	Anger 1970's (1975)  "The facilitation of aggression by aggression: Evidence against the catharsis hypothesis".  Green; et al Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 31 (4): 721–726. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.366.6962. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.31.4.721. PMID 1159613. 90 male college students were either attacked or treated in a more neutral manner by a male confederate. On a subsequent maze-learning task, 30 Ss shocked the confederate, 30 observed as the E shocked the confederate, and 30 waited for a period of time during which the confederate was not shocked. Finally, all Ss shocked the confederate as part of a code-learning task. Ss who had been attacked and had shocked the confederate during the maze task delivered shocks of greater intensity on the code task than did Ss in the other 2 conditions, and the former Ss also experienced a greater reduction in diastolic blood pressure than did the latter. Results contradict the hypothesis of aggression catharsis and are discussed in terms of feelings of restraint against aggressing that an S experiences after committing an aggressive act. (1978) "Let's not throw the baby out with the bathwater: The catharsis hypothesis revisited".  Evidence for: Murray, Joan; Feshbach, Seymour Journal of Personality. 46 (3): 462–473. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1978.tb01012.xGlick, Anger 1980's   Advances in the Study of Aggression. Vol. 2. Academic Press. pp. 1–67. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-1-4831-9968-9.50002-x. ISBN 978-1-4831-9968-9. Video   (September 1980). "Sargeant, Winthrop , trans.The Bhagavad Gita. New York, Doubleday, 1979".  Spiegelberg, Frederic; Stein, Richard  The San Francisco Jung Institute Library Journal. 2 (1): 23–31. doi:https://doi.org/10.1525/jung.1.1980.2.1.23. ISSN 0270-6210 None Anger 1990's (1995). "A multimethod examination of the benefits and detriments of intragroup conflict".  Jehn, K.A.  Administrative Science Quarterly. 40 (2): 256–282. doi:https://doi.org/10.2307/2393638. JSTOR 2393638 Abstract This study examines the structure of 105 work groups and management teams to address the question of whether conflict can be beneficial. Multiple methods were used to examine the effects of conflict on both individual- and group-level variables to provide a more refined model of intragroup conflict. Results show that whether conflict was beneficial depended on the type of conflict and the structure of the group in terms of task type, task interdependence, and group norms. Relationship and task conflicts were negatively associated with individuals' satisfaction, liking of other group members, and intent to remain in the group. In groups performing very routine tasks, disagreements about the task were detrimental to group functioning. In contrast, in groups performing nonroutine tasks, disagreements about the tasks did not have a detrimental effect, and in some cases, such disagreements were actually beneficial. Contrary to expectations, norms encouraging open discussion of conflict were not always advantageous. The results suggest that while such norms were associated with an increase in the number and intensity of relationship conflicts, they did not increase members' ability to deal with the conflicts constructively. The model developed here contributes to an integrated perspective on organizational conflict. (1999)  "Anger expression in Mexican American and White non-Hispanic adolescents".   Deffenbacher, J. L.; Swaim, R. C. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 46 (1): 61–69. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.46.1.61.van  Anger 2000  (2000) "Beyond valence in the perception of likelihood: The role of emotion specificity".  D. DeSteno; R.E. Petty; D.T. Wegener; D.D. Rucker Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 78 (3): 397–416. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.78.3.397. PMID 10743870. S2CID 16076868 Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 78(4) of Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (see record 2007-17405-001). The graph in the upper panel, "Low NC Participants," was incorrect. The corrected figure in its entirety appears in this erratum.] Positive and negative moods have been shown to increase likelihood estimates of future events matching these states in valence (e.g., E. J. Johnson and A. Tversky, 1983). In the present article, 4 studies provide evidence that this congruency bias (1) is not limited to valence but functions in an emotion-specific manner, (2) derives from the informational value of emotions, and (3) is not the inevitable outcome of likelihood assessment under heightened emotion. Specifically, Study 1 demonstrates that sadness and anger, 2 distinct, negative emotions, differentially bias likelihood estimates of sad and angering events. Studies 2 and 3 replicate this finding in addition to supporting an emotion-as-information (cf. N. Schwarz and G. L. Clore, 1983), as opposed to a memory-based, mediating process for the bias. Finally, Study 4 shows that when the source of the emotion is salient, a reversal of the bias can occur given greater cognitive effort aimed at accuracy.  (2000)  "Intergroup Emotions: Explaining Offensive Action Tendencies in an Intergroup Context" (PDF).  Diane M. Mackie; Thierry Devos; Eliot R. Smith Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 79 (4): 602–616. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.4.602. PMID 11045741. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-28.  International Handbook of Anger. Chapter 17 Three studies tested the idea that when social identity is salient, group-based appraisals elicit specific emotions and action tendencies toward out-groups. Participants' group memberships were made salient and the collective support apparently enjoyed by the in-group was measured or manipulated. The authors then measured anger and fear (Studies 1 and 2) and anger and contempt (Study 3), as well as the desire to move against or away from the out-group. Intergroup anger was distinct from intergroup fear, and the inclination to act against the out-group was distinct from the tendency to move away from it. Participants who perceived the in-group as strong were more likely to experience anger toward the out-group and to desire to take action against it. The effects of perceived in-group strength on offensive action tendencies were mediated by anger. (2000)  "Sentimental Stereotypes: Emotional Expectations for High-and Low-Status Group Members".  Tiedens, Ellsworth; Tiedens, Mesquita  Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 26 (5): 560–575. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167200267004. S2CID 56077921 Abstract Three vignette studies examined stereotypes of the emotions associated with high-and low-status group members. In Study 1a, participants believed that in negative situations, high-status people feel more angry than sad or guilty and that low-status people feel more sad and guilty than angry. Study 1b showed that in response to positive outcomes, high-status people are expected to feel more pride and low-status people are expected to feel more appreciation. Study 2 showed that people also infer status from emotions: Angry and proud people are thought of as high status, whereas sad, guilty, and appreciative people are considered low status. The authors argue that these emotion stereotypes are due to differences in the inferred abilities of people in high and low positions. These perceptions lead to expectations about agency appraisals and emotions related to agency appraisals. In Study 3, the authors found support for this process by manipulating perceptions of skill and finding the same differences in emotion expectations. Anger 2001 (January 2001) "Anger and advancement versus sadness and subjugation: the effect of negative emotion expressions on social status conferral".  Tiedens L.Z Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 80 (1): 86–94. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.80.1.86. PMID 11195894. Retrieved 2015-11-27 (2001) "Fear, Anger, and Risk" (PDF).  Jennifer S. Lerner; Dacher Keltner Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 81 (1): 146–159. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.1.146. PMID 11474720. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-05-16. Drawing on an appraisal-tendency framework (J. S. Lerner & D. Kelmer, 2000), the authors predicted and found that fear and anger have opposite effects on risk perception. Whereas fearful people expressed pessimistic risk estimates and risk-averse choices, angry people expressed optimistic risk estimates and risk-seeking choices. These opposing patterns emerged for naturally occurring and experimentally induced fear and anger. Moreover, estimates of angry people more closely resembled those of happy people than those of fearful people. Consistent with predictions, appraisal tendencies accounted for these effects: Appraisals of certainty and control moderated and (in the case of control) mediated the emotion effects. As a complement to studies that link affective valence to judgment outcomes, the present studies highlight multiple benefits of studying specific emotions Anger 2002 (August 2002)  "Respiratory feedback in the generation of emotion".   Philippot, Pierre; Chapelle, Gaëtane; Blairy, Sylvie Cognition & Emotion. 16 (5): 605–627. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000392. S2CID 146185970. Retrieved 18 March 2017. This article reports two studies investigating the relationship between emotional feelings and respiration. In the first study, participants were asked to produce an emotion of either joy, anger, fear or sadness and to describe the breathing pattern that fit best with the generated emotion. Results revealed that breathing patterns reported during voluntary production of emotion were (a) comparable to those objectively recorded in psychophysiological experiments on emotion arousal, (b) consistently similar across individuals, and (c) clearly differentiated among joy, anger, fear, and sadness. A second study used breathing instructions based on Study 1's results to investigate the impact of the manipulation of respiration on emotional feeling state. A cover story was used so that participants could not guess the actual purpose of the study. This manipulation produced significant emotional feeling states that were differentiated according to the type of breathing pattern. The implications of these findings for emotion theories based on peripheral feedback and for emotion regulation are discussed. (2002) "Workplace anger and aggression: Informing conceptual models with data from specific encounters".  Glomb, T.M. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology. 7 (1): 20–36. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.7.1.20. PMID Workplace aggression is typically assessed by reports of the frequency of aggressive behaviors aggregated across incidents. Relations tested using such assessments are limited in the information they can provide about the operation of aggression within the context of a specific encounter. Analysis of data from structured interviews and questionnaire reports of employee experiences of specific workplace aggression incidents (as the target and as the aggressor) examine a variety of perceived antecedents, aggressive behaviors, and outcomes. Results suggest a variety of organizational, job-related, and personal antecedents, such as job stress and conflicts, and job-related outcomes, such as dissatisfaction. These data provide insight into the patterning of aggressive behaviors within an encounter and suggest an escalatory pattern. Data suggest relations between the severity of an aggressive encounter and the negativity of employee outcomes. ( Anger 2003 Anger 2004 (2004). "Discrete emotions and persuasion: The role of emotion-induced expectancies".  DeSteno, D.; Petty, R.E.; Rucker, D.D.; Wegener, D.T.; Braverman, J. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 86 (1): 43–56. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.138.452. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.43. PMID 14717627 (2004). "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists".  Haque, Amber Journal of Religion and Health. 43 (4): 357–377 [366–368]. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-004-4302-z. S2CID 38740431. Abstract Early Muslims wrote extensively about human nature and called it Ilm-al Nafsiat or self-knowledge. In many cases, their works seem to be the original ideas for many modern day psychological theories and practices. What is interesting however is that a lot of what the early scholars wrote was blended with Islamic philosophy and religious ideas. This paper covers major contributions of prominent early Muslim scholars to psychology and outlines the challenges faced by today's Muslims in adapting to the Western theories. It also offers a few recommendations on the indigenization of psychology for Muslim societies interested in seeking the Islamic perspective on human behaviors.   (2004)  "Prejudice From Thin Air: The Effect of Emotion on Automatic Intergroup Attitudes" (PDF).  David DeSteno; Nilanjana Dasgupta; Monica Y. Bartlett; Aida Cajdric Psychological Science. 15 (5): 319–324.doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00676.x. PMID 15102141. S2CID 666642. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-23. Retrieved 2010-07-01. Abstract Two experiments provide initial evidence that specific emotional states are capable of creating automatic prejudice toward outgroups. Specifically, we propose that anger should influence automatic evaluations of outgroups because of its functional relevance to intergroup conflict and competition, whereas other negative emotions less relevant to intergroup relations (e.g., sadness) should not. In both experiments, after minimal ingroups and outgroups were created, participants were induced to experience anger, sadness, or a neutral state.  Anger 2005 (2005) "Evolving Judgments of Terror Risks: Foresight, Hindsight, and Emotion" (PDF).  Fischhoff, Baruch; Gonzalez, Roxana M.; Lerner, Jennifer S.; Small, Deborah A. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied. 11 (2): 134–139. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.320.7149. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-898x.11.2.124. PMID 15998184. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-19. [Correction Notice: An Erratum for this article was reported in Vol 18(2) of Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied (see record 2012-15756-002). It was found that the second author on the original paper, Roxana M. Gonzalez, falsified data in connection with certain research projects. Researchers not involved in this original project were engaged to repeat all analyses reported in the article, starting with the original, untainted data for the study. Based on this reanalysis, a corrected version of the article is now being published.] The authors examined the evolution of cognitive and emotional responses to terror risks for a nationally representative sample of Americans between late 2001 and late 2002. Respondents' risk judgments changed in ways consistent with their reported personal experiences. However, they did not recognize these changes, producing hindsight bias in memories for their judgments. An intensive debiasing procedure failed to restore a foresightful perspective. A fear-inducing manipulation increased risk estimates, whereas an anger-inducing manipulation reduced them-both in predictions (as previously observed) and in memories and judgments of past risks. Thus, priming emotions shaped not only perceptions of an abstract future but also perceptions of a concrete past. These results suggest how psychological research can help to ensure an informed public (2005) "Anger in Black and White: Race, alienation, and anger".  Mabry, J. B.; Kiecolt, K. J. Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 46 (1): 85–101. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/002214650504600107. PMID 15869122. S2CID 1575076 Abstract Using data from the 1996 General Social Survey and the 1973 Chicago Crowding Study, we test the hypotheses that African Americans feel and express more anger than whites, that sense of control (versus powerlessness) lessens anger and mistrust increases anger, and that these indicators of alienation affect anger differently for African Americans and whites. We find that when age and gender are controlled, African Americans neither feel nor express more anger than whites, despite having a lower average sense of control and higher mistrust. This is partly because the effects of sense of control and mistrust on anger differ by race. Sense of control reduces feelings of anger and anger expression more for African Americans than whites. Mistrust increases feelings of anger for whites, but not African Americans. The results provide further evidence that, in the stress process, social structural location may moderate the effects of “detriments” and “resources” on emotional upset. Anger 2006 Anger 2007 (2007)  "The role of perspective taking in anger arousal".  P., Mohr; Howells, K.; Gerace, A.; Day, A.; Wharton, P. Personality and Individual Differences. 43 (3): 507–517. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2006.12.019. hdl:2328/36189. (2007) "Emotion judgments do not differ as a function of perceived nationality".  Matsumoto, D International Journal of Psychology. 42 (3): 207–214. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/00207590601050926 This article reports three studies concerning the relationship between emotion judgments and perceived nationality of the expressors being judged. Study 1 demonstrated that observers do not reliably make implicit assumptions about the nationalities of the expressors in judgment tasks. Study 2 examined judgments of Americans and Japanese observers who were told that Caucasian and Asian expressors were Americans and Japanese, respectively, and who made fixed-choice judgments and intensity ratings. Study 3 examined judgments of Americans given similar instructions and who used a multiscalar rating task. Neither Studies 2 nor 3 provided evidence that nationality information affected judgments. These findings have implications not only for basic emotion theory, but also for international and intercultural communication training. Anger 2008 Anger 2009 Mercer D, Douglass AB, Links PS (April 2009). "Meta-analyses of mood stabilizers, antidepressants and antipsychotics in the treatment of borderline personality disorder: effectiveness for depression and anger symptoms".  J Pers Disord. 23 (2): 156–74. doi:https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi.2009.23.2.156. PMID 19379093. . (July 2009). "Anger and depression".  Busch, Fredric N Advances in Psychiatric Treatment. 15 (4): 271–278. doi:https://doi.org/10.1192/apt.bp.107.004937. ISSN 1355-5146. (2009)  "Ethnic and gender differences in emotional ideology, experience, and expression".  Hatfield, E. C.; Rapson, R. L.; Le, Y. L Interpersona: An International Journal on Personal Relationships. 3 (1): 30–57. doi:https://doi.org/10.5964/ijpr.v3i1.31 Anger 2010 (February 2010). "Anger and fear responses to stress have different biological profiles" (PDF).  Moons, Wesley G.; Eisenberger, Naomi I.; Taylor, Shelley E. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 24 (2): 215–219. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2009.08.009. PMID 19732822. S2CID 8099653 Abstract In contrast to a general model of stress, a functional model suggests that emotions may regulate stress responses in specific adaptive ways. The current study examined whether anger and fear during a challenging stress task (Trier Social Stress Task) were differentially associated with cortisol and proinflammatory cytokine responses to an acute stressor. Baseline anger and fear were related to greater cortisol and proinflammatory cytokines. However, anger reactions to the stressor were associated with greater stress-related increases in cortisol over time but not proinflammatory cytokines. In contrast, fear reactions to the stressor were associated with increases in stress-related proinflammatory cytokines over time and a decrease in cortisol. Results are consistent with the functional perspective that distinct emotional experiences appear to trigger temporally-patterned adaptive biological processes to mobilize energy in response to anger and to promote withdrawal in response to fear. Discussion focuses on the role of the HPA axis to increase available metabolic fuel and proinflammatory cytokines to prompt behavioral withdrawal. (2010-11-01) "Anger makes people want things more".  Aarts, Henk; Ruys, Kirsten I.; Veling, Harm; Renes, Robert A.; De Groot, Jasper H.B.; Van Nunen, Anna M.; Geertjes, Sarit Psychological Science. 21 (10): 1406–1410. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610384152. PMID 20855898. S2CID 30481336. Retrieved 2013-01-03.  Abstract Anger has a special status among the emotions in that it can elicit avoidance as well as approach motivation. This study tested the ignored role of reward context in potentiating approach rather than avoidance responses toward objects associated with anger. In Experiment 1, angry and neutral facial expressions were parafoveally paired with common objects, and responses to the objects were assessed by subjective reports of motivation to obtain them. In Experiment 2, objects were again paired with angry or neutral faces outside of participants’ awareness, and responses toward the objects were indexed by physical effort expended in attempting to win them. Results showed that approach motivation toward anger-related objects can be observed when responding is framed in terms of rewards that one can obtain, whereas avoidance motivation occurs in the absence of such a reward context. These findings point to the importance of a reward context in modulating people’s responses to anger. Anger 2011 Anger 2012 (2012). "The role of empathy in anger arousal in violent offenders and university students".  Day, A.; Mohr, P.; Howells, K.; Gerace, A.; Lim, L. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology. 56 (4): 599–613. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X11431061. hdl:2328/35889. PMID 22158909. S2CID 46542250. A lack of empathic responsiveness toward others has been consistently identified as an important antecedent to aggressive behavior and violent crime, with many rehabilitation programs for violent offenders incorporating treatment modules that are specifically designed to increase offender empathy. This study examined the extent to which cognitive (perspective taking) and affective (empathic concern, personal distress) empathy predicted anger in a clinical (male prisoners convicted of a violent offense) and a nonclinical (student) sample. Perspective taking emerged as the strongest predictor of self-reported anger in response to an interpersonal provocation, as well as being most consistently related to scores on measures of general trait anger and methods of anger control. While the relationship between perspective taking and anger was apparent for offenders as well as students, the results did not support the idea that an inability to perspective take is a particular characteristic of violent offenders Anger 2013 Anger 2014 (2014). "Regulation of memory – from the adrenal medulla to liver to astrocytes to neurons". Gold, Paul E Brain Research Bulletin. 105: 25–35. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresbull.2013.12.012. PMC 4039576. PMID 24406469. Epinephrine, released into blood from the adrenal medulla in response to arousing experiences, is a potent enhancer of learning and memory processing. This review examines mechanisms by which epinephrine exerts its effects on these cognitive functions. Because epinephrine is largely blocked from moving from blood to brain, it is likely that the hormone's effects on memory are mediated by peripheral actions. A classic effect of epinephrine is to act at the liver to break down glycogen stores, resulting in increased blood glucose levels. The increase in blood glucose provides additional energy substrates to the brain to buttress the processes needed for an experience to be learned and remembered. In part, it appears that the increased glucose may act in the brain in a manner akin to that evident in the liver, engaging glycogenolysis in astrocytes to provide an energy substrate, in this case lactate, to augment neuronal functions. Together, the findings reveal a mechanism underlying modulation of memory that integrates the physiological functions of multiple organ systems to support brain processes. (2014) "White matter astrocytes in health and disease".. Lundgaard, I.; Osório, M.J.; Kress, B.T.; Sanggaard, S.; Nedergaard, M. Neuroscience. 276: 161–173. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.10.050. PMC 4016995. PMID 24231735 Abstract Myelination by oligodendrocytes is a highly specialized process that relies on intimate interactions between the axon and the oligodendrocytes. Astrocytes have an important part in facilitating myelination in the CNS, however, comparatively less is known about how they affect myelination. This review therefore summarizes the literature and explores lingering questions surrounding differences between white matter and gray matter astrocytes, how astrocytes support myelination, how their dysfunction in pathological states contributes to myelin pathologies and how astrocytes may facilitate remyelination. We discuss how astrocytes in the white matter are specialized to promote myelination and myelin maintenance by clearance of extracellular ions and neurotransmitters and by secretion of pro-myelinating factors. Additionally, astrocyte–oligodendrocyte coupling via gap junctions is crucial for both myelin formation and maintenance, due to K+ buffering and possibly metabolic support for oligodendrocytes via the panglial syncytium. Dysfunctional astrocytes aberrantly affect oligodendrocytes, as exemplified by a number of leukodystrophies in which astrocytic pathology is known as the direct cause of myelin pathology. Conversely, in primary demyelinating diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, astrocytes may facilitate remyelination. We suggest that specific manipulation of astrocytes could help prevent myelin pathologies and successfully restore myelin sheaths after demyelination Anger 2015 (February 2015) "The pharmacological management of oppositional behavior, conduct problems, and aggression in children and adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Part 1: psychostimulants, alpha-2 agonists, and atomoxetine".  Pringsheim T, Hirsch L, Gardner D, Gorman DA  Can J Psychiatry. 60 (2): 42–51. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/070674371506000202. PMC 4344946. PMID 2588665 Objective: Children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) may have oppositional behaviour, conduct problems, and aggression. These symptoms vary in severity, and may be related to a comorbid diagnosis of oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) or conduct disorder (CD). Critical evaluation of the efficacy of ADHD medications may guide the clinician regarding the usefulness of medications for these symptoms. Method: We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of psychostimulants, alpha-2 agonists, and atomoxetine for oppositional behaviour, conduct problems, and aggression in youth with ADHD, ODD, and CD. The quality of evidence for medications was rated using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation approach. Results: Two systematic reviews and 20 randomized controlled trials were included. There is high-quality evidence that psychostimulants have a moderate-to-large effect on oppositional behaviour, conduct problems, and aggression in youth with ADHD, with and without ODD or CD. There is very-low-quality evidence that clonidine has a small effect on oppositional behaviour and conduct problems in youth with ADHD, with and without ODD or CD. There is moderate-quality evidence that guanfacine has a small-to-moderate effect on oppositional behaviour in youth with ADHD, with and without ODD. There is high-quality evidence that atomoxetine has a small effect on oppositional behaviour in youth with ADHD, with and without ODD or CD. Conclusions: Evidence indicates that psychostimulants, alpha-2 agonists, and atomoxetine can be beneficial for disruptive and aggressive behaviours in addition to core ADHD symptoms; however, psychostimulants generally provide the most benefit. (February 2015) "The pharmacological management of oppositional behaviour, conduct problems, and aggression in children and adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Part 2:  Pringsheim T, Hirsch L, Gardner D, Gorman DA antipsychotics and traditional mood stabilizers". Can J Psychiatry. 60 (2): 52–61. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/070674371506000203. PMC 4344947. PMID 25886656 AbstractRésumé Objective: Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), and conduct disorder (CD) are among the most common psychiatric diagnoses in childhood. Aggression and conduct problems are a major source of disability and a risk factor for poor long-term outcomes. Methods: We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of antipsychotics, lithium, and anticonvulsants for aggression and conduct problems in youth with ADHD, ODD, and CD. Each medication was given an overall quality of evidence rating based on the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation approach. Results: Eleven RCTs of antipsychotics and 7 RCTs of lithium and anticonvulsants were included. There is moderate-quality evidence that risperidone has a moderate-to-large effect on conduct problems and aggression in youth with subaverage IQ and ODD, CD, or disruptive behaviour disorder not otherwise specified, with and without ADHD, and high-quality evidence that risperidone has a moderate effect on disruptive and aggressive behaviour in youth with average IQ and ODD or CD, with and without ADHD. Evidence supporting the use of haloperidol, thioridazine, quetiapine, and lithium in aggressive youth with CD is of low or very-low quality, and evidence supporting the use of divalproex in aggressive youth with ODD or CD is of low quality. There is very-low-quality evidence that carbamazepine is no different from placebo for the management of aggression in youth with CD. Conclusion: With the exception of risperidone, the evidence to support the use of antipsychotics and mood stabilizers is of low quality. Anger 2016 of Antidepressant Medications for Symptoms of Irritability and Disruptive Behaviors in Children and Adolescents"  J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 26 (8): 694–704. doi:https://doi.org/10.1089/cap.2015.0127. PMID 27482998 . PMID 33656478. S2CID 232102347 Abstract Objectives: Chronic irritability is a common presenting symptom in children and youth in both clinical settings (25%) and in the community (6%–8%). Treatment of irritability is relatively understudied. The purpose of this article is to synthesize evidence regarding the efficacy and safety of antidepressant medications for the treatment of irritability and related symptom dimensions in children and youth. Methods: Systematic review of the literature was conducted to identify studies (including youth aged 6–18) that assessed the effectiveness of antidepressant medications for the treatment of irritability or related behavioral phenotypes, including aggression or symptoms of. Studies of youth with developmental disabilities or autism spectrum disorders were excluded. Results: We identified 99 studies (three randomized trials) assessing the effect of antidepressants in improving irritability, aggression, or oppositional symptoms as secondary outcomes. Only two studies specifically measured the outcome of irritability. Eight of the 11 studies reported significant effects on aggression, oppositionality, or irritability with antidepressant exposure, although effect sizes in all, but two of these, studies were less than 0.25. These effects were significantly reduced, but remained significant in seven of these studies after controlling for changes in comorbid depression scores with treatment. The other three studies reported no change, an increase in frequency of self-harm or aggressive behaviors or benefit in only a subsample of youth who tolerated the antidepressants after 1 year of follow-up. Conclusion: Antidepressant medication exposure appears to have a small effect on irritability and related symptoms in youth. Heterogeneity in the study sample and absence of irritability being measured as a primary outcome across studies restrict the validity of the conclusions. Irritability is a debilitating outcome that needs specific attention in medication treatment studies. (2016)  "Beliefs about emotions mediate the relationship between emotional suppression and quality of life in irritable bowel syndrome".   Bowers, Hannah; Wroe, Abigail Journal of Mental Health. 25 (2): 154–158. doi:https://doi.org/10.3109/09638237.2015.1101414. PMID 26635302. S2CID 24698200 – via Taylor and Francis Online. Abstract Background: Cross-sectional and experimental research has demonstrated an association between emotional suppression and IBS. However, the relationship is not well understood. Aim: To examine the relationships between emotional suppression, we compare the measures of beliefs about emotions and quality of life in irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) with healthy controls. Method: Online questionnaires measured beliefs about emotions, emotional suppression and IBS-related quality of life in participants with (n = 87) and without (n = 37) IBS. Mediation analyses and group comparisons were used to explore the role of emotional suppression and beliefs about emotions in this sample. Results: IBS participants held significantly more beliefs about the unacceptability of emotions compared to healthy controls despite no differences in emotional suppression. The relationship between beliefs about emotions and quality of life was not mediated by emotional suppression. However, the relationship between emotional suppression and quality of life was mediated by beliefs about emotions. Conclusion: The findings suggest a role of beliefs about emotions and emotional suppression in IBS, where emotional suppression may relate to changes in beliefs about emotions and consequently quality of life. This is discussed in relation to the cognitive-behavioural model of medically unexplained symptoms Anger 2017 (18 September 2017) "Moral outrage in the digital age".  Crockett, M. J. Nature Human Behaviour. 1 (11): 769–771. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-017-0213-3. PMID 31024117. S2CID 27074328. Moral outrage is an ancient emotion that is now widespread on digital media and online social networks. How might these new technologies change the expression of moral outrage and its social consequences? Moral outrage is a powerful emotion that motivates people to shame and punish wrongdoers1. Moralistic punishment can be a force for good, increasing cooperation by holding bad actors accountable. But punishment also has a dark side — it can exacerbate social conflict by dehumanizing others2 and escalating into destructive feuds. (June 2017)  "Risk of Irritability With Psychostimulant Treatment in Children With ADHD: A Meta-Analysis".. Stuckelman ZD, Mulqueen JM, Ferracioli-Oda E, Cohen SC, Coughlin CG, Leckman JF, Bloch MH J Clin Psychiatry. 78 (6): e648–e655. doi:https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.15r10601. PMID 28682529 OBJECTIVE: Irritability is listed as a common side effect of psychostimulant medications. However, psychostimulants have been demonstrated as an effective treatment in reducing irritability and aggression in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The goal of this study was to quantify the risk of irritability as a side effect of psychostimulant treatment for ADHD. Anger 2018 Anger 2019 (May 2019)  "Is Sertraline a Good Pharmacological Strategy to Control Anger? Results of a Systematic Review".  Romero-Martínez Á, Murciano-Martí S, Moya-Albiol L  Behav Sci. 9 (5): 57. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/bs9050057. PMC 6562745. PMID 31126061 Abstract Introduction: Extensive research has made it possible to conclude that dysfunctions in serotoninergic transmission are associated with a tendency toward violence and behavioral dysregulations in humans. In this regard, it has been suggested that selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), such as sertraline, which regulate the serotonin system, might reduce proneness to violence. Aims: This review aims to explore changes in feelings of anger-state (e.g., irritability and hostility) and anger expression as primary outcomes after sertraline treatment. Methods: Based on PRISMA quality criteria for reviews, a literature search was carried out through PubMed, PsycINFO, Dialnet, Psicodoc, Web of Knowledge, and the Cochrane Library (April 2019) "The pharmacological management of agitated and aggressive behaviour: A systematic review and meta-analysis".  Bak M, Weltens I, Bervoets C, De Fruyt J, Samochowiec J, Fiorillo A, Sampogna G, Bienkowski P, Preuss WU, Misiak B, Frydecka D, Samochowiec A, Bak E, Drukker M, Dom G Eur Psychiatry. 57: 78–100. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2019.01.014. PMID 30721802. S2CID 73416580 Abstract Introduction: Non-pharmacological interventions preferably precede pharmacological interventions in acute agitation. Reviews of pharmacological interventions remain descriptive or compare only one compound with several other compounds. The goal of this study is to compute a systematic review and meta-analysis of the effect on restoring calmness after a pharmacological intervention, so a more precise recommendation is possible. Method: A search in Pubmed and Embase was done to isolate RCT’s considering pharmacological interventions in acute agitation. The outcome is reaching calmness within maximum of 2 h, assessed by the psychometric scales of PANSS-EC, CGI or ACES. Also the percentages of adverse effects was assessed. Results: Fifty-three papers were included for a systematic review and meta-analysis. Most frequent studied drug is olanzapine. Changes on PANNS-EC and ACES at 2 h showed the strongest changes for haloperidol plus promethazine, risperidon, olanzapine, droperidol and aripiprazole. However, incomplete data showed that the effect of risperidon is overestimated. Adverse effects are most prominent for haloperidol and haloperidol plus lorazepam. Conclusion: Olanzapine, haloperidol plus promethazine or droperidol are most effective and safe for use as rapid tranquilisation. Midazolam sedates most quickly. But due to increased saturation problems, midazolam is restricted to use within an emergency department of a general hospital. (2019)  "The principle of consistency and the cause and function of behaviour". Behavioural Processes. 159: 42–54. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2018.12.013. PMID 30562561. S2CID 56478466 Kampen, H.S Anger 2020 (January 2020). "The feeling of anger: From brain networks to linguistic expressions".  (2012).Alia-Klein, Nelly; Gan, Gabriela; Gilam, Gadi; Bezek, Jessica; Bruno, Antonio; Denson, Thomas F.; Hendler, Talma; Lowe, Leroy; Mariotti, Veronica; Muscatello, Maria R.; Palumbo, Sara; Pellegrini, Silvia; Pietrini, Pietro; Rizzo, Amelia; Verona, Edelyn Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 108: 480–497. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.12.002. PMID 31809773. This review of the neuroscience of anger is part of The Human Affectome Project, where we attempt to map anger and its components (i.e., physiological, cognitive, experiential) to the neuroscience literature (i.e., genetic markers, functional imaging of human brain networks) and to linguistic expressions used to describe anger feelings. Given the ubiquity of anger in both its normative and chronic states, specific language is used in humans to express states of anger. Following a review of the neuroscience literature, we explore the language that is used to convey angry feelings, as well as metaphors reflecting inner states of anger experience. We then discuss whether these linguistic expressions can be mapped on to the neural circuits during anger experience and to distinct components of anger. We also identify relationships between anger components, brain networks, and other affective research relevant to motivational states of dominance and basic needs for safety. 2020 The Message in the Madness: Functions of workplace anger in organizational life  B.; D., Callister, R. R., & Gibson, D.  Academy of Management Perspectives. 34: 28–47. doi:https://doi.org/10.5465/amp.2016.0158 Academy of Management Skip main navigationClose Drawer Menu Academy of Management PerspectivesVol. 34, No. 1Articles A Message in the Madness: Functions of Workplace Anger in Organizational Life is companion of Keep Calm and Carry On: Five Tips about Anger at Work Deanna Geddes, Ronda Roberts Callister and Donald E. Gibson Published Online:27 Feb 2020 https://doi.org/10.5465/amp.2016.0158 About AOM Insights Summary View Article Abstract Although workplace anger is not typically viewed favorably and is often an unpleasant experience, in this article we challenge management scholars to better understand when anger can produce positive as well as negative outcomes at work. Our aim is to address the complexity and ambiguity surrounding anger at work and simultaneously offer a more balanced perspective of its potential. First, we clarify features of the anger experience, examining its intrapersonal, interpersonal, and social–cultural layers as well as differentiating various forms of workplace anger using the dual threshold model (Geddes & Callister, 2007). Second, we address key misunderstandings operating in organizations with regard to anger by reviewing research that illustrates why expressed anger is allowed and found to be appropriate (even beneficial) in certain circumstances and less so in others. Third, we challenge anger’s reputation as a negative emotion by reexamining management literatures that have traditionally eschewed anger, those that have embraced it, and potential areas where anger can shed new light on future research. Finally, we propose that organizations offering “appropriate space” for anger expression can take advantage of its potential to promote constructive conversations and needed change. Anger 2021 (2021)  "Pharmacological Treatment of Agitation and/or Aggression in Patients With Traumatic Brain Injury: A Systematic Review of Reviews". Rahmani E, Lemelle TM, Samarbafzadeh E, Kablinger AS J Head Trauma Rehabil. 36 (4): E262–E283. doi:https://doi.org/10.1097/HTR.0000000000000656 Abstract Objective:  To systematically review the available literature on the pharmacological management of agitation and/or aggression in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI), synthesize the available data, and provide guidelines. Design:  Systematic review of systematic reviews. Main Measures:  A literature review of the following websites was performed looking for systematic reviews on the treatment of agitation and/or aggression among patients with TBI: PubMed, CINAHL, DynaMed, Health Business Elite, and EBSCO (Psychology and behavioral sciences collection). Two researchers independently assessed articles for meeting inclusion/exclusion criteria. Data were extracted on year of publication, reviewed databases, dates of coverage, search limitations, pharmacological agents of interest, and a list of all controlled studies included. The included controlled studies were then examined to determine potential reasons for any difference in recommendations. Results:  The literature review led to 187 citations and 67 unique publications after removing the duplicates. Following review of the title/abstracts and full texts, a total of 11 systematic reviews were included. The systematic reviews evaluated the evidence for safety and efficacy of the following medications: amantadine, amphetamines, methylphenidate, antiepileptics, atypical and typical antipsychotics, benzodiazepines, β-blockers, and sertraline. Conclusions:  On the basis of the results of this literature review, the authors recommend avoiding benzodiazepines and haloperidol for treating agitation and/or aggression in the context of TBI. Atypical antipsychotics (olanzapine in particular) can be considered as practical alternatives for the as-needed management of agitation and/or aggression in lieu of benzodiazepines and haloperidol. Amantadine, β-blockers (propranolol and pindolol), antiepileptics, and methylphenidate can be considered for scheduled treatment of agitation and/or aggression in patients with TBI. Anger 2022  (April 2022)  "Systematic Review and Meta-analysis: Efficacy of Pharmacological Interventions for Irritability and Emotional Dysregulation in Autism Spectrum Disorder and Predictors of Response".  Salazar de Pablo G, Jordá CP, Vaquerizo-Serrano J, Moreno C, Cabras A, Arango C, Hernández P, Veenstra-VanderWeele J, Simonoff E, Fusar-Poli P, Santosh P, Cortese S, Parellada M J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2022.03.033. PMID 35470032. S2CID 248371519 Emotional dysregulation and irritability are common in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). We conducted the first meta-analysis assessing the efficacy of a broad range of pharmacological interventions for emotional dysregulation and irritability in ASD and predictors of response. Method Following a preregistered protocol (PROSPERO: CRD42021235779), we systematically searched multiple databases until January 1, 2021. We included placebo-controlled randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and evaluated the efficacy of pharmacological interventions and predictors of response for emotional dysregulation and irritability. We assessed heterogeneity using Q statistics and publication bias. We conducted subanalyses and meta-regressions to identify predictors of response. The primary effect size was the standardized mean difference. Quality of studies was assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool (RoB2). Results A total of 2,856 individuals with ASD in 45 studies were included, among which 26.7% of RCTs had a high risk of bias. Compared to placebo, antipsychotics (standardized mean difference = 1.028, 95% CI = 0.824-1.232) and medications used to treat attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (0.471, 0.061-0.881) were significantly better than placebo in improving emotional dysregulation and irritability, whereas evidence of efficacy was not found for other drug classes (p > .05). Within individual medications, evidence of efficacy was found for aripiprazole (1.179, 0.838-1.520) and risperidone (1.074, 0.818-1.331). Increased rates of comorbid epilepsy (β = −0.049, p = .026) were associated with a lower efficacy. Conclusion Some pharmacological interventions (particularly risperidone and aripiprazole) have proved efficacy for short-term treatment of emotional dysregulation and irritability in ASD and should be considered within a multimodal treatment plan, taking into account also the tolerability profile and families’ preferences. Anger ??? Date ??? "Anger definition". Medicine.net. Retrieved 2008-04-05. How Far to Generalize?: Meaning Violations and Fluid Compensation in the Laboratory and in the World,      Christopher G. Davis, Danay C. Novoa, Psychological Inquiry, https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2012.721339, 23, 4, (336-338), None APA PsycNet". psycnet.apa.org. Retrieved 2020-10-08

‘To steal from one author is plagiarism, if you steal from many, it’s research.’

– Wilson Mizner (1876–1933)